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+ls(P)                                                     ls(P)
+
+
+
+
+
+NAME
+       ls - list directory contents
+
+SYNOPSIS
+       ls [-CFRacdilqrtu1][-H | -L ][-fgmnopsx][file...]
+
+DESCRIPTION
+       For  each operand that names a file of a type other than
+       directory or symbolic link  to  a  directory,  ls  shall
+       write  the  name  of  the file as well as any requested,
+       associated information.  For each operand that  names  a
+       file  of  type  directory,  ls  shall write the names of
+       files contained within the  directory  as  well  as  any
+       requested, associated information. If one of the -d, -F,
+       or -l options are specified, and one of  the  -H  or  -L
+       options are not specified, for each operand that names a
+       file of type symbolic link  to  a  directory,  ls  shall
+       write  the  name  of  the file as well as any requested,
+       associated information. If none of the  -d,  -F,  or  -l
+       options are specified, or the -H or -L options are spec-
+       ified, for each operand that names a file of  type  sym-
+       bolic  link  to a directory, ls shall write the names of
+       files contained within the  directory  as  well  as  any
+       requested, associated information.
+
+       If  no  operands  are specified, ls shall write the con-
+       tents of the current directory. If more than one operand
+       is  specified,  ls  shall  write  non-directory operands
+       first; it shall sort directory and  non-directory  oper-
+       ands  separately  according to the collating sequence in
+       the current locale.
+
+       The ls utility shall detect  infinite  loops;  that  is,
+       entering  a  previously  visited  directory  that  is an
+       ancestor of the last file encountered. When  it  detects
+       an infinite loop, ls shall write a diagnostic message to
+       standard error and shall either recover its position  in
+       the hierarchy or terminate.
+
+OPTIONS
+       The  ls  utility  shall  conform to the Base Definitions
+       volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001,  Section  12.2,  Utility
+       Syntax Guidelines.
+
+       The following options shall be supported:
+
+       -C     Write   multi-text-column   output  with  entries
+              sorted down the columns, according to the collat-
+              ing  sequence. The number of text columns and the
+              column separator characters are unspecified,  but
+              should  be  adapted  to  the nature of the output
+              device.
+
+       -F     Do not follow symbolic links  named  as  operands
+              unless  the -H or -L options are specified. Write
+              a slash ( '/' ) immediately after  each  pathname
+              that  is  a  directory, an asterisk ( '*' ) after
+              each that is executable, a vertical bar (  '|'  )
+              after each that is a FIFO, and an at sign ( '@' )
+              after each that is a  symbolic  link.  For  other
+              file types, other symbols may be written.
+
+       -H     If  a  symbolic  link  referencing a file of type
+              directory is specified on the  command  line,  ls
+              shall evaluate the file information and file type
+              to be those of the file referenced by  the  link,
+              and  not the link itself; however, ls shall write
+              the name of the link itself and not the file ref-
+              erenced by the link.
+
+       -L     Evaluate  the  file information and file type for
+              all symbolic links (whether named on the  command
+              line  or  encountered  in a file hierarchy) to be
+              those of the file referenced by the link, and not
+              the link itself; however, ls shall write the name
+              of the link itself and not the file referenced by
+              the link. When -L is used with -l, write the con-
+              tents of symbolic links in the long  format  (see
+              the STDOUT section).
+
+       -R     Recursively list subdirectories encountered.
+
+       -a     Write  out all directory entries, including those
+              whose names begin with a period ( '.' ).  Entries
+              beginning  with a period shall not be written out
+              unless explicitly referenced, the  -a  option  is
+              supplied,  or an implementation-defined condition
+              shall cause them to be written.
+
+       -c     Use time of last modification of the file  status
+              information   (see  <sys/stat.h>  in  the  System
+              Interfaces   volume   of    IEEE Std 1003.1-2001)
+              instead  of  last modification of the file itself
+              for sorting ( -t) or writing ( -l).
+
+       -d     Do not follow symbolic links  named  as  operands
+              unless the -H or -L options are specified. Do not
+              treat directories differently than other types of
+              files. The use of -d with -R produces unspecified
+              results.
+
+       -f     Force each argument to be interpreted as a direc-
+              tory  and  list the name found in each slot. This
+              option shall turn off -l, -t,  -s,  and  -r,  and
+              shall turn on -a; the order is the order in which
+              entries appear in the directory.
+
+       -g     The same as -l, except that the owner  shall  not
+              be written.
+
+       -i     For  each file, write the file's file serial num-
+              ber (see stat() in the System  Interfaces  volume
+              of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001).
+
+       -l     (The  letter  ell.)  Do not follow symbolic links
+              named as operands unless the -H or -L options are
+              specified. Write out in long format (see the STD-
+              OUT section). When  -l  (ell)  is  specified,  -1
+              (one) shall be assumed.
+
+       -m     Stream output format; list files across the page,
+              separated by commas.
+
+       -n     The same as -l, except that the owner's  UID  and
+              GID  numbers  shall  be  written, rather than the
+              associated character strings.
+
+       -o     The same as -l, except that the group  shall  not
+              be written.
+
+       -p     Write a slash ( '/' ) after each filename if that
+              file is a directory.
+
+       -q     Force each  instance  of  non-printable  filename
+              characters  and <tab>s to be written as the ques-
+              tion-mark ( '?' ) character. Implementations  may
+              provide  this  option by default if the output is
+              to a terminal device.
+
+       -r     Reverse the order of the sort to get reverse col-
+              lating sequence or oldest first.
+
+       -s     Indicate  the  total number of file system blocks
+              consumed by each file displayed. The  block  size
+              is          implementation-defined.          <img
+              src="../images/opt-end.gif"  alt="[Option   End]"
+              border="0">
+
+       -t     Sort  with  the  primary  key being time modified
+              (most recently modified first) and the  secondary
+              key being filename in the collating sequence.
+
+       -u     Use   time  of  last  access  (see  <sys/stat.h>)
+              instead of last  modification  of  the  file  for
+              sorting ( -t) or writing ( -l).
+
+       -x     The same as -C, except that the multi-text-column
+              output is produced with  entries  sorted  across,
+              rather than down, the columns.
+
+       -1     (The  numeric  digit one.) Force output to be one
+              entry per line.
+
+
+       Specifying more than one of the options in the following
+       mutually-exclusive  pairs  shall  not  be  considered an
+       error: -C and -l (ell),   -m and -l  (ell),  -x  and  -l
+       (ell),   -C and -1 (one), -H and -L, -c and -u. The last
+       option specified in each pair shall determine the output
+       format.
+
+OPERANDS
+       The following operand shall be supported:
+
+       file   A  pathname  of a file to be written. If the file
+              specified is  not  found,  a  diagnostic  message
+              shall be output on standard error.
+
+
+STDIN
+       Not used.
+
+INPUT FILES
+       None.
+
+ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
+       The  following  environment  variables  shall affect the
+       execution of ls:
+
+       COLUMNS
+              Determine the user's  preferred  column  position
+              width for writing multiple text-column output. If
+              this variable contains a  string  representing  a
+              decimal  integer,  the ls utility shall calculate
+              how many pathname text columns to write (see  -C)
+              based  on  the  width provided. If COLUMNS is not
+              set or invalid, an implementation-defined  number
+              of  column  positions  shall be assumed, based on
+              the  implementation's  knowledge  of  the  output
+              device.  The  column  width  chosen  to write the
+              names of files in any given  directory  shall  be
+              constant. Filenames shall not be truncated to fit
+              into the multiple text-column output.
+
+       LANG   Provide a default value for the internationaliza-
+              tion  variables  that are unset or null. (See the
+              Base Definitions volume of  IEEE Std 1003.1-2001,
+              Section  8.2,  Internationalization Variables for
+              the precedence of internationalization  variables
+              used  to  determine  the  values  of locale cate-
+              gories.)
+
+       LC_ALL If set to a non-empty string value, override  the
+              values  of  all  the  other  internationalization
+              variables.
+
+       LC_COLLATE
+
+              Determine  the  locale  for  character  collation
+              information in determining the pathname collation
+              sequence.
+
+       LC_CTYPE
+              Determine the locale for  the  interpretation  of
+              sequences  of  bytes  of  text data as characters
+              (for example, single-byte as  opposed  to  multi-
+              byte  characters  in arguments) and which charac-
+              ters are defined as  printable  (character  class
+              print).
+
+       LC_MESSAGES
+              Determine  the  locale  that  should  be  used to
+              affect the format and contents of diagnostic mes-
+              sages written to standard error.
+
+       LC_TIME
+              Determine  the  format  and contents for date and
+              time strings written by ls.
+
+       NLSPATH
+              Determine the location of  message  catalogs  for
+              the processing of LC_MESSAGES .
+
+       TZ     Determine  the timezone for date and time strings
+              written by ls.   If  TZ  is  unset  or  null,  an
+              unspecified default timezone shall be used.
+
+
+ASYNCHRONOUS EVENTS
+       Default.
+
+STDOUT
+       The  default  format shall be to list one entry per line
+       to standard output; the exceptions are to  terminals  or
+       when  one  of the -C,   -m, or -x  options is specified.
+       If the output is to a terminal, the format is  implemen-
+       tation-defined.
+
+       When -m is specified, the format used shall be:
+
+
+              "%s, %s, ...\n", <filename1>, <filename2>
+
+       where  the  largest number of filenames shall be written
+       without exceeding the length of the line.
+
+       If the -i option is specified, the  file's  file  serial
+       number  (see  <sys/stat.h>) shall be written in the fol-
+       lowing format before any other  output  for  the  corre-
+       sponding entry:
+
+
+              %u ", <file serial number>
+
+       If  the -l option is specified without -L, the following
+       information shall be written:
+
+
+              "%s %u %s %s %u %s %s\n", <file mode>, <number of links>,
+                  <owner name>, <group name>, <number of bytes in the file>,
+                  <date and time>, <pathname>
+
+       If the file is a symbolic link, this  information  shall
+       be  about the link itself and the <pathname> field shall
+       be of the form:
+
+
+              "%s -> %s", <pathname of link>, <contents of link>
+
+       If both -l and -L are specified, the following  informa-
+       tion shall be written:
+
+
+              "%s %u %s %s %u %s %s\n", <file mode>, <number of links>,
+                  <owner name>, <group name>, <number of bytes in the file>,
+                  <date and time>, <pathname of link>
+
+       where  all fields except <pathname of link> shall be for
+       the file resolved from the symbolic link.
+
+       The -g, -n, and -o options use the same  format  as  -l,
+       but  with  omitted  items and their associated <blank>s.
+       See the OPTIONS section.
+
+       In both the preceding  -l  forms,  if  <owner  name>  or
+       <group name> cannot be determined,    or if -n is given,
+       they shall be replaced  with  their  associated  numeric
+       values using the format %u .
+
+       The  <date and time> field shall contain the appropriate
+       date and timestamp of when the file was  last  modified.
+       In  the  POSIX locale, the field shall be the equivalent
+       of the output of the following date command:
+
+
+              date "+%b %e %H:%M"
+
+       if the file has been modified in the  last  six  months,
+       or:
+
+
+              date "+%b %e %Y"
+
+       (where  two <space>s are used between %e and %Y ) if the
+       file has not been modified in the last six months or  if
+       the  modification date is in the future, except that, in
+       both cases, the final <newline> produced by  date  shall
+       not  be  included and the output shall be as if the date
+       command were executed at the time of the last  modifica-
+       tion date of the file rather than the current time. When
+       the LC_TIME locale category is  not  set  to  the  POSIX
+       locale,  a different format and order of presentation of
+       this field may be used.
+
+       If the file is a  character  special  or  block  special
+       file,  the  size of the file may be replaced with imple-
+       mentation-defined information associated with the device
+       in question.
+
+       If  the  pathname  was  specified  as a file operand, it
+       shall be written as specified.
+
+       The file mode written under the -l,    -g,  -n,  and  -o
+       options shall consist of the following format:
+
+
+              "%c%s%s%s%c", <entry type>, <owner permissions>,
+                  <group permissions>, <other permissions>,
+                  <optional alternate access method flag>
+
+       The  <optional alternate access method flag>  shall be a
+       single <space> if there is no  alternate  or  additional
+       access  control  method associated with the file; other-
+       wise, a printable character shall be used.
+
+       The <entry type> character shall describe  the  type  of
+       file, as follows:
+
+       d      Directory.
+
+       b      Block special file.
+
+       c      Character special file.
+
+       l (ell)
+              Symbolic link.
+
+       p      FIFO.
+
+       -      Regular file.
+
+
+       Implementations may add other characters to this list to
+       represent other implementation-defined file types.
+
+       The next three fields shall be three characters each:
+
+       <owner permissions>
+
+              Permissions for the file  owner  class  (see  the
+              Base  Definitions volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001,
+              Section 4.4, File Access Permissions).
+
+       <group permissions>
+
+              Permissions for the file group class.
+
+       <other permissions>
+
+              Permissions for the file other class.
+
+
+       Each field shall have three character positions:
+
+       If 'r' , the file is readable; if '-' , the file is  not
+       readable.
+
+       If  'w' , the file is writable; if '-' , the file is not
+       writable.
+
+       The first of the following that applies:
+
+       S      If in <owner permissions>, the file is  not  exe-
+              cutable  and  set-user-ID  mode  is  set.  If  in
+              <group permissions>, the file is  not  executable
+              and set-group-ID mode is set.
+
+       s      If in <owner permissions>, the file is executable
+              and set-user-ID mode is set. If in <group permis-
+              sions>,  the  file is executable and set-group-ID
+              mode is set.
+
+       T      If in  <other permissions>  and  the  file  is  a
+              directory,  search  permission  is not granted to
+              others, and the restricted deletion flag is  set.
+
+       t      If  in  <other permissions>  and  the  file  is a
+              directory, search permission is granted  to  oth-
+              ers, and the restricted deletion flag is set.
+
+       x      The  file  is  executable  or  the  directory  is
+              searchable.
+
+       -      None of the attributes of 'S' , 's' , 'T' , 't' ,
+              or 'x' applies.
+
+
+       Implementations  may  add  other characters to this list
+       for the third character position. Such additions  shall,
+       however,  be  written  in  lowercase if the file is exe-
+       cutable or searchable, and in uppercase if it is not.
+
+       If any of the -l,   -g, -n, -o, or -s options is  speci-
+       fied,  each  list of files within the directory shall be
+       preceded by a status line indicating the number of  file
+       system  blocks  occupied  by  files  in the directory in
+       512-byte units, rounded up to the next  integral  number
+       of  units, if necessary. In the POSIX locale, the format
+       shall be:
+
+
+              "total %u\n", <number of units in the directory>
+
+       If more than one directory, or  a  combination  of  non-
+       directory files and directories are written, either as a
+       result  of  specifying  multiple  operands,  or  the  -R
+       option,  each  list of files within a directory shall be
+       preceded by:
+
+
+              "\n%s:\n", <directory name>
+
+       If this string is the first thing  to  be  written,  the
+       first  <newline> shall not be written. This output shall
+       precede the number of units in the directory.
+
+       If the -s option is given, each file  shall  be  written
+       with  the  number of blocks used by the file. Along with
+       -C, -1, -m, or -x, the number and a <space>  shall  pre-
+       cede  the  filename;  with -g, -l, -n, or -o, they shall
+       precede each line describing a file.
+
+STDERR
+       The standard error shall be  used  only  for  diagnostic
+       messages.
+
+OUTPUT FILES
+       None.
+
+EXTENDED DESCRIPTION
+       None.
+
+EXIT STATUS
+       The following exit values shall be returned:
+
+        0     Successful completion.
+
+       >0     An error occurred.
+
+
+CONSEQUENCES OF ERRORS
+       Default.
+
+       The following sections are informative.
+
+APPLICATION USAGE
+       Many  implementations  use  the  equal  sign  ( '=' ) to
+       denote sockets bound to  the  file  system  for  the  -F
+       option.   Similarly, many historical implementations use
+       the 's' character to denote sockets as  the  entry  type
+       characters for the -l option.
+
+       It  is difficult for an application to use every part of
+       the file modes field of ls  -l  in  a  portable  manner.
+       Certain  file  types and executable bits are not guaran-
+       teed to be exactly as shown, as implementations may have
+       extensions.   Applications  can  use  this field to pass
+       directly to a user printout or prompt, but actions based
+       on  its  contents should generally be deferred, instead,
+       to the test utility.
+
+       The output of ls (with the -l and related options)  con-
+       tains information that logically could be used by utili-
+       ties such as chmod and touch to restore files to a known
+       state.  However, this information is presented in a for-
+       mat that cannot be used directly by those  utilities  or
+       be  easily  translated into a format that can be used. A
+       character has been added to the end of  the  permissions
+       string  so that applications at least have an indication
+       that they may be working in an area they do  not  under-
+       stand  instead  of  assuming that they can translate the
+       permissions string into  something  that  can  be  used.
+       Future  issues  or  related  documents may define one or
+       more specific characters to be used based  on  different
+       standard additional or alternative access control mecha-
+       nisms.
+
+       As with many of the utilities that deal with  filenames,
+       the  output  of  ls  for multiple files or in one of the
+       long listing formats must be used carefully  on  systems
+       where  filenames  can contain embedded white space. Sys-
+       tems and system administrators should institute policies
+       and user training to limit the use of such filenames.
+
+       The  number  of disk blocks occupied by the file that it
+       reports varies depending on underlying file system type,
+       block size units reported, and the method of calculating
+       the number of blocks. On some  file  system  types,  the
+       number  is  the  actual number of blocks occupied by the
+       file (counting indirect blocks and ignoring holes in the
+       file); on others it is calculated based on the file size
+       (usually making an allowance for  indirect  blocks,  but
+       ignoring holes).
+
+EXAMPLES
+       An  example of a small directory tree being fully listed
+       with ls -laRF a in the POSIX locale:
+
+
+              total 11
+              drwxr-xr-x   3 hlj      prog          64 Jul  4 12:07 ./
+              drwxrwxrwx   4 hlj      prog        3264 Jul  4 12:09 ../
+              drwxr-xr-x   2 hlj      prog          48 Jul  4 12:07 b/
+              -rwxr--r--   1 hlj      prog         572 Jul  4 12:07 foo*
+
+
+              a/b:
+              total 4
+              drwxr-xr-x   2 hlj      prog          48 Jul  4 12:07 ./
+              drwxr-xr-x   3 hlj      prog          64 Jul  4 12:07 ../
+              -rw-r--r--   1 hlj      prog         700 Jul  4 12:07 bar
+
+RATIONALE
+       Some historical implementations of the ls  utility  show
+       all entries in a directory except dot and dot-dot when a
+       superuser invokes ls without specifying the  -a  option.
+       When  "normal"  users  invoke  ls without specifying -a,
+       they should not see information  about  any  files  with
+       names  beginning with a period unless they were named as
+       file operands.
+
+       Implementations  are  expected  to  traverse   arbitrary
+       depths  when  processing the -R option. The only limita-
+       tion on depth should be based on running out of physical
+       storage for keeping track of untraversed directories.
+
+       The  -1  (one)  option was historically found in BSD and
+       BSD-derived implementations only. It is required in this
+       volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001 so that conforming appli-
+       cations might ensure that output is one entry per  line,
+       even if the output is to a terminal.
+
+       Generally, this volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001 is silent
+       about what  happens  when  options  are  given  multiple
+       times.  In the cases of -C, -l, and -1, however, it does
+       specify the results of these overlapping options.  Since
+       ls  is one of the most aliased commands, it is important
+       that the implementation perform intuitively.  For  exam-
+       ple, if the alias were:
+
+
+              alias ls="ls -C"
+
+       and  the  user  typed  ls  -1, single-text-column output
+       should result, not an error.
+
+       The BSD ls provides a -A option (like -a,  but  dot  and
+       dot-dot  are not written out). The small difference from
+       -a did not seem important enough to require both.
+
+       Implementations may make -q the default for terminals to
+       prevent  trojan  horse attacks on terminals with special
+       escape sequences. This is not required because:
+
+              Some control characters may  be  useful  on  some
+              terminals; for example, a system might write them
+              as "\001" or "^A" .
+
+              Special behavior for terminals is not relevant to
+              applications portability.
+
+       An  early proposal specified that the optional alternate
+       access method flag had to be '+' if there was an  alter-
+       nate  access method used on the file or <space> if there
+       was not. This was changed to be <space> if there is  not
+       and  a  single printable character if there is. This was
+       done for three reasons:
+
+       There are historical  implementations  using  characters
+       other than '+' .
+
+       There  are implementations that vary this character used
+       in that position to distinguish between  various  alter-
+       nate access methods in use.
+
+       The  standard developers did not want to preclude future
+       specifications that might need a  way  to  specify  more
+       than one alternate access method.
+
+       Nonetheless,  implementations  providing a single alter-
+       nate access method are encouraged to use '+' .
+
+       In an early proposal, the units used to specify the num-
+       ber  of blocks occupied by files in a directory in an ls
+       -l listing were implementation-defined. This was because
+       BSD  systems  have historically used 1024-byte units and
+       System V systems have historically used 512-byte  units.
+       It  was  pointed out by BSD developers that their system
+       has used 512-byte units in  some  places  and  1024-byte
+       units  in  other places. (System V has consistently used
+       512.)  Therefore, this  volume  of  IEEE Std 1003.1-2001
+       usually  specifies  512.  Future  releases  of  BSD  are
+       expected to consistently provide 512 bytes as a  default
+       with a way of specifying 1024-byte units where appropri-
+       ate.
+
+       The <date and time> field in the -l format is  specified
+       only  for  the POSIX locale. As noted, the format can be
+       different in other locales. No  mechanism  for  defining
+       this  is present in this volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001,
+       as the appropriate vehicle is a messaging  system;  that
+       is, the format should be specified as a "message".
+
+FUTURE DIRECTIONS
+       The  -s  uses implementation-defined units and cannot be
+       used portably; it may be withdrawn in a future  version.
+
+SEE ALSO
+       chmod()  ,  find  ,  the  System  Interfaces  volume  of
+       IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, stat(), the Base Definitions  vol-
+       ume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, <sys/stat.h>
+
+COPYRIGHT
+       Portions  of  this  text are reprinted and reproduced in
+       electronic form from  IEEE  Std  1003.1,  2003  Edition,
+       Standard  for Information Technology -- Portable Operat-
+       ing System Interface (POSIX), The Open Group Base Speci-
+       fications Issue 6, Copyright (C) 2001-2003 by the Insti-
+       tute of Electrical and Electronics  Engineers,  Inc  and
+       The  Open Group. In the event of any discrepancy between
+       this version and the original IEEE and  The  Open  Group
+       Standard,  the original IEEE and The Open Group Standard
+       is the referee document. The original  Standard  can  be
+       obtained        online        at        http://www.open-
+       group.org/unix/online.html .
+
+
+
+POSIX                         2003                        ls(P)