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font-weight: normal} +ul.no-bullet {list-style: none} +--> +</style> + + +</head> + +<body lang="en"> +<h1 class="settitle" align="center">Tiny C Compiler Reference Documentation</h1> + + + +<a name="SEC_Contents"></a> +<h2 class="contents-heading">Table of Contents</h2> + +<div class="contents"> + +<ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-Introduction-1" href="#Introduction">1 Introduction</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Command-line-invocation" href="#Invoke">2 Command line invocation</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-Quick-start" href="#Quick-start">2.1 Quick start</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Option-summary" href="#Option-summary">2.2 Option summary</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-C-language-support" href="#Clang">3 C language support</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-ANSI-C" href="#ANSI-C">3.1 ANSI C</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-ISOC99-extensions" href="#ISOC99-extensions">3.2 ISOC99 extensions</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-GNU-C-extensions" href="#GNU-C-extensions">3.3 GNU C extensions</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-TinyCC-extensions" href="#TinyCC-extensions">3.4 TinyCC extensions</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-TinyCC-Assembler" href="#asm">4 TinyCC Assembler</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-Syntax" href="#Syntax">4.1 Syntax</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Expressions" href="#Expressions">4.2 Expressions</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Labels" href="#Labels">4.3 Labels</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Directives" href="#Directives">4.4 Directives</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-X86-Assembler" href="#X86-Assembler">4.5 X86 Assembler</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-TinyCC-Linker" href="#linker">5 TinyCC Linker</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-ELF-file-generation" href="#ELF-file-generation">5.1 ELF file generation</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-ELF-file-loader" href="#ELF-file-loader">5.2 ELF file loader</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-PE_002di386-file-generation" href="#PE_002di386-file-generation">5.3 PE-i386 file generation</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-GNU-Linker-Scripts" href="#GNU-Linker-Scripts">5.4 GNU Linker Scripts</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-TinyCC-Memory-and-Bound-checks" href="#Bounds">6 TinyCC Memory and Bound checks</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-The-libtcc-library" href="#Libtcc">7 The <code>libtcc</code> library</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Developer_0027s-guide" href="#devel">8 Developer’s guide</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-File-reading" href="#File-reading">8.1 File reading</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Lexer" href="#Lexer">8.2 Lexer</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Parser" href="#Parser">8.3 Parser</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Types" href="#Types">8.4 Types</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Symbols" href="#Symbols">8.5 Symbols</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Sections" href="#Sections">8.6 Sections</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Code-generation" href="#Code-generation">8.7 Code generation</a> + <ul class="no-bullet"> + <li><a name="toc-Introduction-2" href="#Introduction-2">8.7.1 Introduction</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-The-value-stack" href="#The-value-stack">8.7.2 The value stack</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-Manipulating-the-value-stack" href="#Manipulating-the-value-stack">8.7.3 Manipulating the value stack</a></li> + <li><a name="toc-CPU-dependent-code-generation" href="#CPU-dependent-code-generation">8.7.4 CPU dependent code generation</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-Optimizations-done" href="#Optimizations-done">8.8 Optimizations done</a></li> + </ul></li> + <li><a name="toc-Concept-Index" href="#Concept-Index">Concept Index</a></li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<a name="Top"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="n" rel="next">Introduction</a>, Previous: <a href="dir.html#Top" accesskey="p" rel="prev">(dir)</a>, Up: <a href="dir.html#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">(dir)</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="Tiny-C-Compiler-Reference-Documentation"></a> +<h1 class="top">Tiny C Compiler Reference Documentation</h1> + +<p>This manual documents version 0.9.27 of the Tiny C Compiler. +</p> +<table class="menu" border="0" cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="1">Introduction</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Introduction to tcc. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Invoke" accesskey="2">Invoke</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Invocation of tcc (command line, options). +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Clang" accesskey="3">Clang</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">ANSI C and extensions. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#asm" accesskey="4">asm</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Assembler syntax. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#linker" accesskey="5">linker</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Output file generation and supported targets. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Bounds" accesskey="6">Bounds</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Automatic bounds-checking of C code. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#Libtcc" accesskey="7">Libtcc</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">The libtcc library. +</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" valign="top">• <a href="#devel" accesskey="8">devel</a>:</td><td> </td><td align="left" valign="top">Guide for Developers. +</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr> +<a name="Introduction"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#Invoke" accesskey="n" rel="next">Invoke</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="Introduction-1"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">1 Introduction</h2> + +<p>TinyCC (aka TCC) is a small but hyper fast C compiler. Unlike other C +compilers, it is meant to be self-relying: you do not need an +external assembler or linker because TCC does that for you. +</p> +<p>TCC compiles so <em>fast</em> that even for big projects <code>Makefile</code>s may +not be necessary. +</p> +<p>TCC not only supports ANSI C, but also most of the new ISO C99 +standard and many GNUC extensions including inline assembly. +</p> +<p>TCC can also be used to make <em>C scripts</em>, i.e. pieces of C source +that you run as a Perl or Python script. Compilation is so fast that +your script will be as fast as if it was an executable. +</p> +<p>TCC can also automatically generate memory and bound checks +(see <a href="#Bounds">Bounds</a>) while allowing all C pointers operations. TCC can do +these checks even if non patched libraries are used. +</p> +<p>With <code>libtcc</code>, you can use TCC as a backend for dynamic code +generation (see <a href="#Libtcc">Libtcc</a>). +</p> +<p>TCC mainly supports the i386 target on Linux and Windows. There are alpha +ports for the ARM (<code>arm-tcc</code>) and the TMS320C67xx targets +(<code>c67-tcc</code>). More information about the ARM port is available at +<a href="http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/tinycc-devel/2003-10/msg00044.html">http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/tinycc-devel/2003-10/msg00044.html</a>. +</p> +<p>For usage on Windows, see also <a href="tcc-win32.txt">tcc-win32.txt</a>. +</p> +<hr> +<a name="Invoke"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#Clang" accesskey="n" rel="next">Clang</a>, Previous: <a href="#Introduction" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Introduction</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="Command-line-invocation"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">2 Command line invocation</h2> + +<a name="Quick-start"></a> +<h3 class="section">2.1 Quick start</h3> + +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">usage: tcc [options] [<var>infile1</var> <var>infile2</var>…] [<samp>-run</samp> <var>infile</var> <var>args</var>…] +</pre></div> + +<p>TCC options are a very much like gcc options. The main difference is that TCC +can also execute directly the resulting program and give it runtime +arguments. +</p> +<p>Here are some examples to understand the logic: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -run a.c</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile <samp>a.c</samp> and execute it directly +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -run a.c arg1</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile a.c and execute it directly. arg1 is given as first argument to +the <code>main()</code> of a.c. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc a.c -run b.c arg1</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile <samp>a.c</samp> and <samp>b.c</samp>, link them together and execute them. arg1 is given +as first argument to the <code>main()</code> of the resulting program. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -o myprog a.c b.c</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile <samp>a.c</samp> and <samp>b.c</samp>, link them and generate the executable <samp>myprog</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -o myprog a.o b.o</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>link <samp>a.o</samp> and <samp>b.o</samp> together and generate the executable <samp>myprog</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -c a.c</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile <samp>a.c</samp> and generate object file <samp>a.o</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -c asmfile.S</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Preprocess with C preprocess and assemble <samp>asmfile.S</samp> and generate +object file <samp>asmfile.o</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -c asmfile.s</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Assemble (but not preprocess) <samp>asmfile.s</samp> and generate object file +<samp>asmfile.o</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>‘<samp>tcc -r -o ab.o a.c b.c</samp>’</code></dt> +<dd><p>Compile <samp>a.c</samp> and <samp>b.c</samp>, link them together and generate the object file <samp>ab.o</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Scripting: +</p> +<p>TCC can be invoked from <em>scripts</em>, just as shell scripts. You just +need to add <code>#!/usr/local/bin/tcc -run</code> at the start of your C source: +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">#!/usr/local/bin/tcc -run +#include <stdio.h> + +int main() +{ + printf("Hello World\n"); + return 0; +} +</pre></div> + +<p>TCC can read C source code from <em>standard input</em> when <samp>-</samp> is used in +place of <samp>infile</samp>. Example: +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">echo 'main(){puts("hello");}' | tcc -run - +</pre></div> + +<a name="Option-summary"></a> +<h3 class="section">2.2 Option summary</h3> + +<p>General Options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-c</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate an object file. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-o outfile</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Put object file, executable, or dll into output file <samp>outfile</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-run source [args...]</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Compile file <var>source</var> and run it with the command line arguments +<var>args</var>. In order to be able to give more than one argument to a +script, several TCC options can be given <em>after</em> the +<samp>-run</samp> option, separated by spaces: +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">tcc "-run -L/usr/X11R6/lib -lX11" ex4.c +</pre></div> +<p>In a script, it gives the following header: +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">#!/usr/local/bin/tcc -run -L/usr/X11R6/lib -lX11 +</pre></div> + +</dd> +<dt><samp>-v</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Display TCC version. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-vv</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Show included files. As sole argument, print search dirs. -vvv shows tries too. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-bench</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Display compilation statistics. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Preprocessor options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-Idir</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Specify an additional include path. Include paths are searched in the +order they are specified. +</p> +<p>System include paths are always searched after. The default system +include paths are: <samp>/usr/local/include</samp>, <samp>/usr/include</samp> +and <samp>PREFIX/lib/tcc/include</samp>. (<samp>PREFIX</samp> is usually +<samp>/usr</samp> or <samp>/usr/local</samp>). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Dsym[=val]</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Define preprocessor symbol ‘<samp>sym</samp>’ to +val. If val is not present, its value is ‘<samp>1</samp>’. Function-like macros can +also be defined: <samp>-DF(a)=a+1</samp> +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Usym</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Undefine preprocessor symbol ‘<samp>sym</samp>’. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-E</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Preprocess only, to stdout or file (with -o). +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Compilation flags: +</p> +<p>Note: each of the following options has a negative form beginning with +<samp>-fno-</samp>. +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-funsigned-char</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Let the <code>char</code> type be unsigned. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-fsigned-char</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Let the <code>char</code> type be signed. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-fno-common</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Do not generate common symbols for uninitialized data. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-fleading-underscore</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Add a leading underscore at the beginning of each C symbol. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-fms-extensions</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Allow a MS C compiler extensions to the language. Currently this +assumes a nested named structure declaration without an identifier +behaves like an unnamed one. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-fdollars-in-identifiers</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Allow dollar signs in identifiers +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Warning options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-w</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Disable all warnings. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Note: each of the following warning options has a negative form beginning with +<samp>-Wno-</samp>. +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-Wimplicit-function-declaration</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Warn about implicit function declaration. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wunsupported</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Warn about unsupported GCC features that are ignored by TCC. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wwrite-strings</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Make string constants be of type <code>const char *</code> instead of <code>char +*</code>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Werror</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Abort compilation if warnings are issued. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wall</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Activate all warnings, except <samp>-Werror</samp>, <samp>-Wunusupported</samp> and +<samp>-Wwrite-strings</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Linker options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-Ldir</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Specify an additional static library path for the <samp>-l</samp> option. The +default library paths are <samp>/usr/local/lib</samp>, <samp>/usr/lib</samp> and <samp>/lib</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-lxxx</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Link your program with dynamic library libxxx.so or static library +libxxx.a. The library is searched in the paths specified by the +<samp>-L</samp> option and <code>LIBRARY_PATH</code> variable. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Bdir</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Set the path where the tcc internal libraries (and include files) can be +found (default is <samp>PREFIX/lib/tcc</samp>). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-shared</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate a shared library instead of an executable. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-soname name</samp></dt> +<dd><p>set name for shared library to be used at runtime +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-static</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate a statically linked executable (default is a shared linked +executable). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-rdynamic</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Export global symbols to the dynamic linker. It is useful when a library +opened with <code>dlopen()</code> needs to access executable symbols. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-r</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate an object file combining all input files. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,-rpath=path</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Put custom search path for dynamic libraries into executable. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,--enable-new-dtags</samp></dt> +<dd><p>When putting a custom search path for dynamic libraries into the executable, +create the new ELF dynamic tag DT_RUNPATH instead of the old legacy DT_RPATH. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,--oformat=fmt</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Use <var>fmt</var> as output format. The supported output formats are: +</p><dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>elf32-i386</code></dt> +<dd><p>ELF output format (default) +</p></dd> +<dt><code>binary</code></dt> +<dd><p>Binary image (only for executable output) +</p></dd> +<dt><code>coff</code></dt> +<dd><p>COFF output format (only for executable output for TMS320C67xx target) +</p></dd> +</dl> + +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,-subsystem=console/gui/wince/...</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Set type for PE (Windows) executables. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,-[Ttext=# | section-alignment=# | file-alignment=# | image-base=# | stack=#]</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Modify executable layout. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,-Bsymbolic</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Set DT_SYMBOLIC tag. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-Wl,-(no-)whole-archive</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Turn on/off linking of all objects in archives. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Debugger options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-g</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate run time debug information so that you get clear run time +error messages: <code> test.c:68: in function 'test5()': dereferencing +invalid pointer</code> instead of the laconic <code>Segmentation +fault</code>. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-b</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate additional support code to check +memory allocations and array/pointer bounds. <samp>-g</samp> is implied. Note +that the generated code is slower and bigger in this case. +</p> +<p>Note: <samp>-b</samp> is only available on i386 when using libtcc for the moment. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-bt N</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Display N callers in stack traces. This is useful with <samp>-g</samp> or +<samp>-b</samp>. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Misc options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-MD</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Generate makefile fragment with dependencies. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-MF depfile</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Use <samp>depfile</samp> as output for -MD. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-print-search-dirs</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Print the configured installation directory and a list of library +and include directories tcc will search. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-dumpversion</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Print version. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Target specific options: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>-mms-bitfields</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Use an algorithm for bitfield alignment consistent with MSVC. Default is +gcc’s algorithm. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-mfloat-abi (ARM only)</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Select the float ABI. Possible values: <code>softfp</code> and <code>hard</code> +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-mno-sse</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Do not use sse registers on x86_64 +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>-m32, -m64</samp></dt> +<dd><p>Pass command line to the i386/x86_64 cross compiler. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p>Note: GCC options <samp>-Ox</samp>, <samp>-fx</samp> and <samp>-mx</samp> are +ignored. +</p> +<p>Environment variables that affect how tcc operates. +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><samp>CPATH</samp></dt> +<dt><samp>C_INCLUDE_PATH</samp></dt> +<dd><p>A colon-separated list of directories searched for include files, +directories given with <samp>-I</samp> are searched first. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><samp>LIBRARY_PATH</samp></dt> +<dd><p>A colon-separated list of directories searched for libraries for the +<samp>-l</samp> option, directories given with <samp>-L</samp> are searched first. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + + + +<hr> +<a name="Clang"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#asm" accesskey="n" rel="next">asm</a>, Previous: <a href="#Invoke" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Invoke</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="C-language-support"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">3 C language support</h2> + +<a name="ANSI-C"></a> +<h3 class="section">3.1 ANSI C</h3> + +<p>TCC implements all the ANSI C standard, including structure bit fields +and floating point numbers (<code>long double</code>, <code>double</code>, and +<code>float</code> fully supported). +</p> +<a name="ISOC99-extensions"></a> +<h3 class="section">3.2 ISOC99 extensions</h3> + +<p>TCC implements many features of the new C standard: ISO C99. Currently +missing items are: complex and imaginary numbers. +</p> +<p>Currently implemented ISOC99 features: +</p> +<ul> +<li> variable length arrays. + +</li><li> 64 bit <code>long long</code> types are fully supported. + +</li><li> The boolean type <code>_Bool</code> is supported. + +</li><li> <code>__func__</code> is a string variable containing the current +function name. + +</li><li> Variadic macros: <code>__VA_ARGS__</code> can be used for + function-like macros: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> #define dprintf(level, __VA_ARGS__) printf(__VA_ARGS__) +</pre></div> + +<p><code>dprintf</code> can then be used with a variable number of parameters. +</p> +</li><li> Declarations can appear anywhere in a block (as in C++). + +</li><li> Array and struct/union elements can be initialized in any order by + using designators: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> struct { int x, y; } st[10] = { [0].x = 1, [0].y = 2 }; + + int tab[10] = { 1, 2, [5] = 5, [9] = 9}; +</pre></div> + +</li><li> Compound initializers are supported: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> int *p = (int []){ 1, 2, 3 }; +</pre></div> +<p>to initialize a pointer pointing to an initialized array. The same +works for structures and strings. +</p> +</li><li> Hexadecimal floating point constants are supported: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> double d = 0x1234p10; +</pre></div> + +<p>is the same as writing +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> double d = 4771840.0; +</pre></div> + +</li><li> <code>inline</code> keyword is ignored. + +</li><li> <code>restrict</code> keyword is ignored. +</li></ul> + +<a name="GNU-C-extensions"></a> +<h3 class="section">3.3 GNU C extensions</h3> + +<p>TCC implements some GNU C extensions: +</p> +<ul> +<li> array designators can be used without ’=’: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> int a[10] = { [0] 1, [5] 2, 3, 4 }; +</pre></div> + +</li><li> Structure field designators can be a label: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> struct { int x, y; } st = { x: 1, y: 1}; +</pre></div> +<p>instead of +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> struct { int x, y; } st = { .x = 1, .y = 1}; +</pre></div> + +</li><li> <code>\e</code> is ASCII character 27. + +</li><li> case ranges : ranges can be used in <code>case</code>s: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> switch(a) { + case 1 … 9: + printf("range 1 to 9\n"); + break; + default: + printf("unexpected\n"); + break; + } +</pre></div> + +<a name="index-aligned-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-packed-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-section-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-unused-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-cdecl-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-stdcall-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-regparm-attribute"></a> +<a name="index-dllexport-attribute"></a> + +</li><li> The keyword <code>__attribute__</code> is handled to specify variable or +function attributes. The following attributes are supported: + <ul> +<li> <code>aligned(n)</code>: align a variable or a structure field to n bytes +(must be a power of two). + +</li><li> <code>packed</code>: force alignment of a variable or a structure field to + 1. + +</li><li> <code>section(name)</code>: generate function or data in assembly section +name (name is a string containing the section name) instead of the default +section. + +</li><li> <code>unused</code>: specify that the variable or the function is unused. + +</li><li> <code>cdecl</code>: use standard C calling convention (default). + +</li><li> <code>stdcall</code>: use Pascal-like calling convention. + +</li><li> <code>regparm(n)</code>: use fast i386 calling convention. <var>n</var> must be +between 1 and 3. The first <var>n</var> function parameters are respectively put in +registers <code>%eax</code>, <code>%edx</code> and <code>%ecx</code>. + +</li><li> <code>dllexport</code>: export function from dll/executable (win32 only) + +</li></ul> + +<p>Here are some examples: +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> int a __attribute__ ((aligned(8), section(".mysection"))); +</pre></div> + +<p>align variable <code>a</code> to 8 bytes and put it in section <code>.mysection</code>. +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> int my_add(int a, int b) __attribute__ ((section(".mycodesection"))) + { + return a + b; + } +</pre></div> + +<p>generate function <code>my_add</code> in section <code>.mycodesection</code>. +</p> +</li><li> GNU style variadic macros: +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> #define dprintf(fmt, args…) printf(fmt, ## args) + + dprintf("no arg\n"); + dprintf("one arg %d\n", 1); +</pre></div> + +</li><li> <code>__FUNCTION__</code> is interpreted as C99 <code>__func__</code> +(so it has not exactly the same semantics as string literal GNUC +where it is a string literal). + +</li><li> The <code>__alignof__</code> keyword can be used as <code>sizeof</code> +to get the alignment of a type or an expression. + +</li><li> The <code>typeof(x)</code> returns the type of <code>x</code>. +<code>x</code> is an expression or a type. + +</li><li> Computed gotos: <code>&&label</code> returns a pointer of type +<code>void *</code> on the goto label <code>label</code>. <code>goto *expr</code> can be +used to jump on the pointer resulting from <code>expr</code>. + +</li><li> Inline assembly with asm instruction: +<a name="index-inline-assembly"></a> +<a name="index-assembly_002c-inline"></a> +<a name="index-_005f_005fasm_005f_005f"></a> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">static inline void * my_memcpy(void * to, const void * from, size_t n) +{ +int d0, d1, d2; +__asm__ __volatile__( + "rep ; movsl\n\t" + "testb $2,%b4\n\t" + "je 1f\n\t" + "movsw\n" + "1:\ttestb $1,%b4\n\t" + "je 2f\n\t" + "movsb\n" + "2:" + : "=&c" (d0), "=&D" (d1), "=&S" (d2) + :"0" (n/4), "q" (n),"1" ((long) to),"2" ((long) from) + : "memory"); +return (to); +} +</pre></div> + +<a name="index-gas"></a> +<p>TCC includes its own x86 inline assembler with a <code>gas</code>-like (GNU +assembler) syntax. No intermediate files are generated. GCC 3.x named +operands are supported. +</p> +</li><li> <code>__builtin_types_compatible_p()</code> and <code>__builtin_constant_p()</code> +are supported. + +</li><li> <code>#pragma pack</code> is supported for win32 compatibility. + +</li></ul> + +<a name="TinyCC-extensions"></a> +<h3 class="section">3.4 TinyCC extensions</h3> + +<ul> +<li> <code>__TINYC__</code> is a predefined macro to indicate that you use TCC. + +</li><li> <code>#!</code> at the start of a line is ignored to allow scripting. + +</li><li> Binary digits can be entered (<code>0b101</code> instead of +<code>5</code>). + +</li><li> <code>__BOUNDS_CHECKING_ON</code> is defined if bound checking is activated. + +</li></ul> + +<hr> +<a name="asm"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#linker" accesskey="n" rel="next">linker</a>, Previous: <a href="#Clang" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Clang</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="TinyCC-Assembler"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">4 TinyCC Assembler</h2> + +<p>Since version 0.9.16, TinyCC integrates its own assembler. TinyCC +assembler supports a gas-like syntax (GNU assembler). You can +deactivate assembler support if you want a smaller TinyCC executable +(the C compiler does not rely on the assembler). +</p> +<p>TinyCC Assembler is used to handle files with <samp>.S</samp> (C +preprocessed assembler) and <samp>.s</samp> extensions. It is also used to +handle the GNU inline assembler with the <code>asm</code> keyword. +</p> +<a name="Syntax"></a> +<h3 class="section">4.1 Syntax</h3> + +<p>TinyCC Assembler supports most of the gas syntax. The tokens are the +same as C. +</p> +<ul> +<li> C and C++ comments are supported. + +</li><li> Identifiers are the same as C, so you cannot use ’.’ or ’$’. + +</li><li> Only 32 bit integer numbers are supported. + +</li></ul> + +<a name="Expressions"></a> +<h3 class="section">4.2 Expressions</h3> + +<ul> +<li> Integers in decimal, octal and hexa are supported. + +</li><li> Unary operators: +, -, ~. + +</li><li> Binary operators in decreasing priority order: + +<ol> +<li> *, /, % +</li><li> &, |, ^ +</li><li> +, - +</li></ol> + +</li><li> A value is either an absolute number or a label plus an offset. +All operators accept absolute values except ’+’ and ’-’. ’+’ or ’-’ can be +used to add an offset to a label. ’-’ supports two labels only if they +are the same or if they are both defined and in the same section. + +</li></ul> + +<a name="Labels"></a> +<h3 class="section">4.3 Labels</h3> + +<ul> +<li> All labels are considered as local, except undefined ones. + +</li><li> Numeric labels can be used as local <code>gas</code>-like labels. +They can be defined several times in the same source. Use ’b’ +(backward) or ’f’ (forward) as suffix to reference them: + +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example"> 1: + jmp 1b /* jump to '1' label before */ + jmp 1f /* jump to '1' label after */ + 1: +</pre></div> + +</li></ul> + +<a name="Directives"></a> +<h3 class="section">4.4 Directives</h3> +<a name="index-assembler-directives"></a> +<a name="index-directives_002c-assembler"></a> +<a name="index-align-directive"></a> +<a name="index-skip-directive"></a> +<a name="index-space-directive"></a> +<a name="index-byte-directive"></a> +<a name="index-word-directive"></a> +<a name="index-short-directive"></a> +<a name="index-int-directive"></a> +<a name="index-long-directive"></a> +<a name="index-quad-directive"></a> +<a name="index-globl-directive"></a> +<a name="index-global-directive"></a> +<a name="index-section-directive"></a> +<a name="index-text-directive"></a> +<a name="index-data-directive"></a> +<a name="index-bss-directive"></a> +<a name="index-fill-directive"></a> +<a name="index-org-directive"></a> +<a name="index-previous-directive"></a> +<a name="index-string-directive"></a> +<a name="index-asciz-directive"></a> +<a name="index-ascii-directive"></a> + +<p>All directives are preceded by a ’.’. The following directives are +supported: +</p> +<ul> +<li> .align n[,value] +</li><li> .skip n[,value] +</li><li> .space n[,value] +</li><li> .byte value1[,...] +</li><li> .word value1[,...] +</li><li> .short value1[,...] +</li><li> .int value1[,...] +</li><li> .long value1[,...] +</li><li> .quad immediate_value1[,...] +</li><li> .globl symbol +</li><li> .global symbol +</li><li> .section section +</li><li> .text +</li><li> .data +</li><li> .bss +</li><li> .fill repeat[,size[,value]] +</li><li> .org n +</li><li> .previous +</li><li> .string string[,...] +</li><li> .asciz string[,...] +</li><li> .ascii string[,...] +</li></ul> + +<a name="X86-Assembler"></a> +<h3 class="section">4.5 X86 Assembler</h3> +<a name="index-assembler"></a> + +<p>All X86 opcodes are supported. Only ATT syntax is supported (source +then destination operand order). If no size suffix is given, TinyCC +tries to guess it from the operand sizes. +</p> +<p>Currently, MMX opcodes are supported but not SSE ones. +</p> +<hr> +<a name="linker"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#Bounds" accesskey="n" rel="next">Bounds</a>, Previous: <a href="#asm" accesskey="p" rel="prev">asm</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="TinyCC-Linker"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">5 TinyCC Linker</h2> +<a name="index-linker"></a> + +<a name="ELF-file-generation"></a> +<h3 class="section">5.1 ELF file generation</h3> +<a name="index-ELF"></a> + +<p>TCC can directly output relocatable ELF files (object files), +executable ELF files and dynamic ELF libraries without relying on an +external linker. +</p> +<p>Dynamic ELF libraries can be output but the C compiler does not generate +position independent code (PIC). It means that the dynamic library +code generated by TCC cannot be factorized among processes yet. +</p> +<p>TCC linker eliminates unreferenced object code in libraries. A single pass is +done on the object and library list, so the order in which object files and +libraries are specified is important (same constraint as GNU ld). No grouping +options (<samp>--start-group</samp> and <samp>--end-group</samp>) are supported. +</p> +<a name="ELF-file-loader"></a> +<h3 class="section">5.2 ELF file loader</h3> + +<p>TCC can load ELF object files, archives (.a files) and dynamic +libraries (.so). +</p> +<a name="PE_002di386-file-generation"></a> +<h3 class="section">5.3 PE-i386 file generation</h3> +<a name="index-PE_002di386"></a> + +<p>TCC for Windows supports the native Win32 executable file format (PE-i386). It +generates EXE files (console and gui) and DLL files. +</p> +<p>For usage on Windows, see also tcc-win32.txt. +</p> +<a name="GNU-Linker-Scripts"></a> +<h3 class="section">5.4 GNU Linker Scripts</h3> +<a name="index-scripts_002c-linker"></a> +<a name="index-linker-scripts"></a> +<a name="index-GROUP_002c-linker-command"></a> +<a name="index-FILE_002c-linker-command"></a> +<a name="index-OUTPUT_005fFORMAT_002c-linker-command"></a> +<a name="index-TARGET_002c-linker-command"></a> + +<p>Because on many Linux systems some dynamic libraries (such as +<samp>/usr/lib/libc.so</samp>) are in fact GNU ld link scripts (horrible!), +the TCC linker also supports a subset of GNU ld scripts. +</p> +<p>The <code>GROUP</code> and <code>FILE</code> commands are supported. <code>OUTPUT_FORMAT</code> +and <code>TARGET</code> are ignored. +</p> +<p>Example from <samp>/usr/lib/libc.so</samp>: +</p><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">/* GNU ld script + Use the shared library, but some functions are only in + the static library, so try that secondarily. */ +GROUP ( /lib/libc.so.6 /usr/lib/libc_nonshared.a ) +</pre></div> + +<hr> +<a name="Bounds"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#Libtcc" accesskey="n" rel="next">Libtcc</a>, Previous: <a href="#linker" accesskey="p" rel="prev">linker</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="TinyCC-Memory-and-Bound-checks"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">6 TinyCC Memory and Bound checks</h2> +<a name="index-bound-checks"></a> +<a name="index-memory-checks"></a> + +<p>This feature is activated with the <samp>-b</samp> (see <a href="#Invoke">Invoke</a>). +</p> +<p>Note that pointer size is <em>unchanged</em> and that code generated +with bound checks is <em>fully compatible</em> with unchecked +code. When a pointer comes from unchecked code, it is assumed to be +valid. Even very obscure C code with casts should work correctly. +</p> +<p>For more information about the ideas behind this method, see +<a href="http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~phjk/BoundsChecking.html">http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~phjk/BoundsChecking.html</a>. +</p> +<p>Here are some examples of caught errors: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt>Invalid range with standard string function:</dt> +<dd><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">{ + char tab[10]; + memset(tab, 0, 11); +} +</pre></div> + +</dd> +<dt>Out of bounds-error in global or local arrays:</dt> +<dd><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">{ + int tab[10]; + for(i=0;i<11;i++) { + sum += tab[i]; + } +} +</pre></div> + +</dd> +<dt>Out of bounds-error in malloc’ed data:</dt> +<dd><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">{ + int *tab; + tab = malloc(20 * sizeof(int)); + for(i=0;i<21;i++) { + sum += tab4[i]; + } + free(tab); +} +</pre></div> + +</dd> +<dt>Access of freed memory:</dt> +<dd><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">{ + int *tab; + tab = malloc(20 * sizeof(int)); + free(tab); + for(i=0;i<20;i++) { + sum += tab4[i]; + } +} +</pre></div> + +</dd> +<dt>Double free:</dt> +<dd><div class="example"> +<pre class="example">{ + int *tab; + tab = malloc(20 * sizeof(int)); + free(tab); + free(tab); +} +</pre></div> + +</dd> +</dl> + +<hr> +<a name="Libtcc"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Next: <a href="#devel" accesskey="n" rel="next">devel</a>, Previous: <a href="#Bounds" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Bounds</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="The-libtcc-library"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">7 The <code>libtcc</code> library</h2> + +<p>The <code>libtcc</code> library enables you to use TCC as a backend for +dynamic code generation. +</p> +<p>Read the <samp>libtcc.h</samp> to have an overview of the API. Read +<samp>libtcc_test.c</samp> to have a very simple example. +</p> +<p>The idea consists in giving a C string containing the program you want +to compile directly to <code>libtcc</code>. Then you can access to any global +symbol (function or variable) defined. +</p> +<hr> +<a name="devel"></a> +<div class="header"> +<p> +Previous: <a href="#Libtcc" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Libtcc</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">Top</a> [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#devel" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p> +</div> +<a name="Developer_0027s-guide"></a> +<h2 class="chapter">8 Developer’s guide</h2> + +<p>This chapter gives some hints to understand how TCC works. You can skip +it if you do not intend to modify the TCC code. +</p> +<a name="File-reading"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.1 File reading</h3> + +<p>The <code>BufferedFile</code> structure contains the context needed to read a +file, including the current line number. <code>tcc_open()</code> opens a new +file and <code>tcc_close()</code> closes it. <code>inp()</code> returns the next +character. +</p> +<a name="Lexer"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.2 Lexer</h3> + +<p><code>next()</code> reads the next token in the current +file. <code>next_nomacro()</code> reads the next token without macro +expansion. +</p> +<p><code>tok</code> contains the current token (see <code>TOK_xxx</code>) +constants. Identifiers and keywords are also keywords. <code>tokc</code> +contains additional infos about the token (for example a constant value +if number or string token). +</p> +<a name="Parser"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.3 Parser</h3> + +<p>The parser is hardcoded (yacc is not necessary). It does only one pass, +except: +</p> +<ul> +<li> For initialized arrays with unknown size, a first pass +is done to count the number of elements. + +</li><li> For architectures where arguments are evaluated in +reverse order, a first pass is done to reverse the argument order. + +</li></ul> + +<a name="Types"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.4 Types</h3> + +<p>The types are stored in a single ’int’ variable. It was chosen in the +first stages of development when tcc was much simpler. Now, it may not +be the best solution. +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">#define VT_INT 0 /* integer type */ +#define VT_BYTE 1 /* signed byte type */ +#define VT_SHORT 2 /* short type */ +#define VT_VOID 3 /* void type */ +#define VT_PTR 4 /* pointer */ +#define VT_ENUM 5 /* enum definition */ +#define VT_FUNC 6 /* function type */ +#define VT_STRUCT 7 /* struct/union definition */ +#define VT_FLOAT 8 /* IEEE float */ +#define VT_DOUBLE 9 /* IEEE double */ +#define VT_LDOUBLE 10 /* IEEE long double */ +#define VT_BOOL 11 /* ISOC99 boolean type */ +#define VT_LLONG 12 /* 64 bit integer */ +#define VT_LONG 13 /* long integer (NEVER USED as type, only + during parsing) */ +#define VT_BTYPE 0x000f /* mask for basic type */ +#define VT_UNSIGNED 0x0010 /* unsigned type */ +#define VT_ARRAY 0x0020 /* array type (also has VT_PTR) */ +#define VT_VLA 0x20000 /* VLA type (also has VT_PTR and VT_ARRAY) */ +#define VT_BITFIELD 0x0040 /* bitfield modifier */ +#define VT_CONSTANT 0x0800 /* const modifier */ +#define VT_VOLATILE 0x1000 /* volatile modifier */ +#define VT_DEFSIGN 0x2000 /* signed type */ + +#define VT_STRUCT_SHIFT 18 /* structure/enum name shift (14 bits left) */ +</pre></div> + +<p>When a reference to another type is needed (for pointers, functions and +structures), the <code>32 - VT_STRUCT_SHIFT</code> high order bits are used to +store an identifier reference. +</p> +<p>The <code>VT_UNSIGNED</code> flag can be set for chars, shorts, ints and long +longs. +</p> +<p>Arrays are considered as pointers <code>VT_PTR</code> with the flag +<code>VT_ARRAY</code> set. Variable length arrays are considered as special +arrays and have flag <code>VT_VLA</code> set instead of <code>VT_ARRAY</code>. +</p> +<p>The <code>VT_BITFIELD</code> flag can be set for chars, shorts, ints and long +longs. If it is set, then the bitfield position is stored from bits +VT_STRUCT_SHIFT to VT_STRUCT_SHIFT + 5 and the bit field size is stored +from bits VT_STRUCT_SHIFT + 6 to VT_STRUCT_SHIFT + 11. +</p> +<p><code>VT_LONG</code> is never used except during parsing. +</p> +<p>During parsing, the storage of an object is also stored in the type +integer: +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">#define VT_EXTERN 0x00000080 /* extern definition */ +#define VT_STATIC 0x00000100 /* static variable */ +#define VT_TYPEDEF 0x00000200 /* typedef definition */ +#define VT_INLINE 0x00000400 /* inline definition */ +#define VT_IMPORT 0x00004000 /* win32: extern data imported from dll */ +#define VT_EXPORT 0x00008000 /* win32: data exported from dll */ +#define VT_WEAK 0x00010000 /* win32: data exported from dll */ +</pre></div> + +<a name="Symbols"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.5 Symbols</h3> + +<p>All symbols are stored in hashed symbol stacks. Each symbol stack +contains <code>Sym</code> structures. +</p> +<p><code>Sym.v</code> contains the symbol name (remember +an identifier is also a token, so a string is never necessary to store +it). <code>Sym.t</code> gives the type of the symbol. <code>Sym.r</code> is usually +the register in which the corresponding variable is stored. <code>Sym.c</code> is +usually a constant associated to the symbol like its address for normal +symbols, and the number of entries for symbols representing arrays. +Variable length array types use <code>Sym.c</code> as a location on the stack +which holds the runtime sizeof for the type. +</p> +<p>Four main symbol stacks are defined: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>define_stack</code></dt> +<dd><p>for the macros (<code>#define</code>s). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>global_stack</code></dt> +<dd><p>for the global variables, functions and types. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>local_stack</code></dt> +<dd><p>for the local variables, functions and types. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>global_label_stack</code></dt> +<dd><p>for the local labels (for <code>goto</code>). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>label_stack</code></dt> +<dd><p>for GCC block local labels (see the <code>__label__</code> keyword). +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<p><code>sym_push()</code> is used to add a new symbol in the local symbol +stack. If no local symbol stack is active, it is added in the global +symbol stack. +</p> +<p><code>sym_pop(st,b)</code> pops symbols from the symbol stack <var>st</var> until +the symbol <var>b</var> is on the top of stack. If <var>b</var> is NULL, the stack +is emptied. +</p> +<p><code>sym_find(v)</code> return the symbol associated to the identifier +<var>v</var>. The local stack is searched first from top to bottom, then the +global stack. +</p> +<a name="Sections"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.6 Sections</h3> + +<p>The generated code and data are written in sections. The structure +<code>Section</code> contains all the necessary information for a given +section. <code>new_section()</code> creates a new section. ELF file semantics +is assumed for each section. +</p> +<p>The following sections are predefined: +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>text_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>is the section containing the generated code. <var>ind</var> contains the +current position in the code section. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>data_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>contains initialized data +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>bss_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>contains uninitialized data +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>bounds_section</code></dt> +<dt><code>lbounds_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>are used when bound checking is activated +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>stab_section</code></dt> +<dt><code>stabstr_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>are used when debugging is active to store debug information +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>symtab_section</code></dt> +<dt><code>strtab_section</code></dt> +<dd><p>contain the exported symbols (currently only used for debugging). +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<a name="Code-generation"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.7 Code generation</h3> +<a name="index-code-generation"></a> + +<a name="Introduction-2"></a> +<h4 class="subsection">8.7.1 Introduction</h4> + +<p>The TCC code generator directly generates linked binary code in one +pass. It is rather unusual these days (see gcc for example which +generates text assembly), but it can be very fast and surprisingly +little complicated. +</p> +<p>The TCC code generator is register based. Optimization is only done at +the expression level. No intermediate representation of expression is +kept except the current values stored in the <em>value stack</em>. +</p> +<p>On x86, three temporary registers are used. When more registers are +needed, one register is spilled into a new temporary variable on the stack. +</p> +<a name="The-value-stack"></a> +<h4 class="subsection">8.7.2 The value stack</h4> +<a name="index-value-stack_002c-introduction"></a> + +<p>When an expression is parsed, its value is pushed on the value stack +(<var>vstack</var>). The top of the value stack is <var>vtop</var>. Each value +stack entry is the structure <code>SValue</code>. +</p> +<p><code>SValue.t</code> is the type. <code>SValue.r</code> indicates how the value is +currently stored in the generated code. It is usually a CPU register +index (<code>REG_xxx</code> constants), but additional values and flags are +defined: +</p> +<div class="example"> +<pre class="example">#define VT_CONST 0x00f0 +#define VT_LLOCAL 0x00f1 +#define VT_LOCAL 0x00f2 +#define VT_CMP 0x00f3 +#define VT_JMP 0x00f4 +#define VT_JMPI 0x00f5 +#define VT_LVAL 0x0100 +#define VT_SYM 0x0200 +#define VT_MUSTCAST 0x0400 +#define VT_MUSTBOUND 0x0800 +#define VT_BOUNDED 0x8000 +#define VT_LVAL_BYTE 0x1000 +#define VT_LVAL_SHORT 0x2000 +#define VT_LVAL_UNSIGNED 0x4000 +#define VT_LVAL_TYPE (VT_LVAL_BYTE | VT_LVAL_SHORT | VT_LVAL_UNSIGNED) +</pre></div> + +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>VT_CONST</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates that the value is a constant. It is stored in the union +<code>SValue.c</code>, depending on its type. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_LOCAL</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates a local variable pointer at offset <code>SValue.c.i</code> in the +stack. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_CMP</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates that the value is actually stored in the CPU flags (i.e. the +value is the consequence of a test). The value is either 0 or 1. The +actual CPU flags used is indicated in <code>SValue.c.i</code>. +</p> +<p>If any code is generated which destroys the CPU flags, this value MUST be +put in a normal register. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_JMP</code></dt> +<dt><code>VT_JMPI</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates that the value is the consequence of a conditional jump. For VT_JMP, +it is 1 if the jump is taken, 0 otherwise. For VT_JMPI it is inverted. +</p> +<p>These values are used to compile the <code>||</code> and <code>&&</code> logical +operators. +</p> +<p>If any code is generated, this value MUST be put in a normal +register. Otherwise, the generated code won’t be executed if the jump is +taken. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_LVAL</code></dt> +<dd><p>is a flag indicating that the value is actually an lvalue (left value of +an assignment). It means that the value stored is actually a pointer to +the wanted value. +</p> +<p>Understanding the use <code>VT_LVAL</code> is very important if you want to +understand how TCC works. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_LVAL_BYTE</code></dt> +<dt><code>VT_LVAL_SHORT</code></dt> +<dt><code>VT_LVAL_UNSIGNED</code></dt> +<dd><p>if the lvalue has an integer type, then these flags give its real +type. The type alone is not enough in case of cast optimisations. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_LLOCAL</code></dt> +<dd><p>is a saved lvalue on the stack. <code>VT_LVAL</code> must also be set with +<code>VT_LLOCAL</code>. <code>VT_LLOCAL</code> can arise when a <code>VT_LVAL</code> in +a register has to be saved to the stack, or it can come from an +architecture-specific calling convention. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_MUSTCAST</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates that a cast to the value type must be performed if the value +is used (lazy casting). +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_SYM</code></dt> +<dd><p>indicates that the symbol <code>SValue.sym</code> must be added to the constant. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>VT_MUSTBOUND</code></dt> +<dt><code>VT_BOUNDED</code></dt> +<dd><p>are only used for optional bound checking. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<a name="Manipulating-the-value-stack"></a> +<h4 class="subsection">8.7.3 Manipulating the value stack</h4> +<a name="index-value-stack"></a> + +<p><code>vsetc()</code> and <code>vset()</code> pushes a new value on the value +stack. If the previous <var>vtop</var> was stored in a very unsafe place(for +example in the CPU flags), then some code is generated to put the +previous <var>vtop</var> in a safe storage. +</p> +<p><code>vpop()</code> pops <var>vtop</var>. In some cases, it also generates cleanup +code (for example if stacked floating point registers are used as on +x86). +</p> +<p>The <code>gv(rc)</code> function generates code to evaluate <var>vtop</var> (the +top value of the stack) into registers. <var>rc</var> selects in which +register class the value should be put. <code>gv()</code> is the <em>most +important function</em> of the code generator. +</p> +<p><code>gv2()</code> is the same as <code>gv()</code> but for the top two stack +entries. +</p> +<a name="CPU-dependent-code-generation"></a> +<h4 class="subsection">8.7.4 CPU dependent code generation</h4> +<a name="index-CPU-dependent"></a> +<p>See the <samp>i386-gen.c</samp> file to have an example. +</p> +<dl compact="compact"> +<dt><code>load()</code></dt> +<dd><p>must generate the code needed to load a stack value into a register. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>store()</code></dt> +<dd><p>must generate the code needed to store a register into a stack value +lvalue. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gfunc_start()</code></dt> +<dt><code>gfunc_param()</code></dt> +<dt><code>gfunc_call()</code></dt> +<dd><p>should generate a function call +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gfunc_prolog()</code></dt> +<dt><code>gfunc_epilog()</code></dt> +<dd><p>should generate a function prolog/epilog. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_opi(op)</code></dt> +<dd><p>must generate the binary integer operation <var>op</var> on the two top +entries of the stack which are guaranteed to contain integer types. +</p> +<p>The result value should be put on the stack. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_opf(op)</code></dt> +<dd><p>same as <code>gen_opi()</code> for floating point operations. The two top +entries of the stack are guaranteed to contain floating point values of +same types. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_cvt_itof()</code></dt> +<dd><p>integer to floating point conversion. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_cvt_ftoi()</code></dt> +<dd><p>floating point to integer conversion. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_cvt_ftof()</code></dt> +<dd><p>floating point to floating point of different size conversion. +</p> +</dd> +<dt><code>gen_bounded_ptr_add()</code></dt> +<dt><code>gen_bounded_ptr_deref()</code></dt> +<dd><p>are only used for bounds checking. +</p> +</dd> +</dl> + +<a name="Optimizations-done"></a> +<h3 class="section">8.8 Optimizations done</h3> +<a name="index-optimizations"></a> +<a name="index-constant-propagation"></a> +<a name="index-strength-reduction"></a> +<a name="index-comparison-operators"></a> +<a name="index-caching-processor-flags"></a> +<a name="index-flags_002c-caching"></a> +<a name="index-jump-optimization"></a> +<p>Constant propagation is done for all operations. Multiplications and +divisions are optimized to shifts when appropriate. Comparison +operators are optimized by maintaining a special cache for the +processor flags. &&, || and ! are optimized by maintaining a special +’jump target’ value. No other jump optimization is currently performed +because it would require to store the code in a more abstract fashion. +</p> +<a name="Concept-Index"></a> +<h2 class="unnumbered">Concept Index</h2> +<table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_symbol-1"><b>_</b></a> + +<br> +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> + +</td></tr></table> +<table class="index-cp" border="0"> +<tr><td></td><th align="left">Index Entry</th><td> </td><th align="left"> Section</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_symbol-1">_</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-_005f_005fasm_005f_005f">__asm__</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-A">A</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-align-directive">align directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-aligned-attribute">aligned attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-ascii-directive">ascii directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-asciz-directive">asciz directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-assembler">assembler</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-assembler-directives">assembler directives</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-assembly_002c-inline">assembly, inline</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-B">B</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bound-checks">bound checks</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bounds">Bounds</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-bss-directive">bss directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-byte-directive">byte directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-C">C</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-caching-processor-flags">caching processor flags</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-cdecl-attribute">cdecl attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-code-generation">code generation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-comparison-operators">comparison operators</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-constant-propagation">constant propagation</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-CPU-dependent">CPU dependent</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-D">D</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-data-directive">data directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-directives_002c-assembler">directives, assembler</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-dllexport-attribute">dllexport attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-E">E</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-ELF">ELF</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-F">F</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-FILE_002c-linker-command">FILE, linker command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-fill-directive">fill directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-flags_002c-caching">flags, caching</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-G">G</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-gas">gas</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-global-directive">global directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-globl-directive">globl directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-GROUP_002c-linker-command">GROUP, linker command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-I">I</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-inline-assembly">inline assembly</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-int-directive">int directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-J">J</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-jump-optimization">jump optimization</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-L">L</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-linker">linker</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-linker-scripts">linker scripts</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-long-directive">long directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-M">M</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-memory-checks">memory checks</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Bounds">Bounds</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-O">O</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-optimizations">optimizations</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-org-directive">org directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-OUTPUT_005fFORMAT_002c-linker-command">OUTPUT_FORMAT, linker command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-P">P</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-packed-attribute">packed attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-PE_002di386">PE-i386</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-previous-directive">previous directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-Q">Q</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-quad-directive">quad directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-R">R</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-regparm-attribute">regparm attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-S">S</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-scripts_002c-linker">scripts, linker</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-section-attribute">section attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-section-directive">section directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-short-directive">short directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-skip-directive">skip directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-space-directive">space directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-stdcall-attribute">stdcall attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-strength-reduction">strength reduction</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-string-directive">string directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-T">T</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-TARGET_002c-linker-command">TARGET, linker command</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#linker">linker</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-text-directive">text directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-U">U</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-unused-attribute">unused attribute</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#Clang">Clang</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-V">V</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-value-stack">value stack</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-value-stack_002c-introduction">value stack, introduction</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#devel">devel</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +<tr><th><a name="devel_cp_letter-W">W</a></th><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td valign="top"><a href="#index-word-directive">word directive</a>:</td><td> </td><td valign="top"><a href="#asm">asm</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr> +</table> +<table><tr><th valign="top">Jump to: </th><td><a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_symbol-1"><b>_</b></a> + +<br> +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-G"><b>G</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-U"><b>U</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a> + +<a class="summary-letter" href="#devel_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a> + +</td></tr></table> + +<hr> + + + +</body> +</html> |